Scoring for Strings

The string orchestra and string section of a symphony orchestra are amongst the oldest ensembles in Western art music. The following will discuss good practice in scoring for the section and suggest examples from the repertoire for further study. The string quartet and other chamber ensembles will also be briefly discussed. Please note this article does not cover specific string techniques; this is a separate subject and is dealt with elsewhere. See the pages on the violin, viola, violoncello and contrabass for this information.

Composition and layout of the String Section

The standard string section of an orchestra is comprised of five sections formed from four different instruments; the first violins, second violins, violas, violoncelli (hereafter referred to as celli) and contrabasses (sometimes called double basses). These are arranged sitting in a semicircle facing the conductor, and in conventional layout are arranged in the order above from left to right as the audience sees the stage, with the contrabasses directly behind the celli. In alternative orchestral layouts, currently growing in popularity, the positions of the celli and second violins may be reversed, or that of the celli and violas. In addition, the contrabass section may be behind the rest of the strings to the left, or spread out in a line across the back of the stage. For a long time in the twentieth century, grouping the violins together and putting the bass instruments together on the right was a practical solution to the limitations of early recording equipment which, lacking stereo, was difficult to differentiate between high and low frequencies of the signal. Another consideration is that in the majority of music written before 1850 (and even after) the celli and basses tended to play very similar parts, doubling in octaves, so it was logical to place them close together on the stage. Some conductors also prefer to group the violin sections together due to similarity of their parts; however for others the rationale of placing the second violins facing the firsts is that their less important part will be slightly less prominant due to the section having their instruments turned away from the audience. This also allows the cello section to face directly forwards. Whatever seating plan is used, it will be at the discretion of the conductor, depending on the repertoire which is to be performed. Opera and theatre string sections, which are usually smaller in size, may simply be grouped together because of space constraints and the lesser importance of presentation.

A string section of a standard symphony orchestra will contain 10-12 first violins, 10-12 seconds, 8-10 violas, 8-10 celli and 6-8 contrabasses. Occasionally a composer may specify the exact numbers of players in each section, for example in Penderecki's Threnody or Richard Strauss' Metamorphosen. In both of the above cases, this is because an specific individual part has been written for each player.

(The harp, which is also technically a member of the string family although in orchestral writing having more in common with the percussion, is usually placed behind the main body of strings to the left or right in order that its more delicate sound is not overwhelmed).

For other works, particularly those in the contemporary repertoire or that require multiple orchestras, many innovative ways of seating the section have been devised. Vaughan Williams' Fantasia on the Theme of Thomas Tallis, for strings alone, asks for the ensemble to be divided into a main orchestra, a smaller orchestra of ten players, and a string quartet. Vaughan Williams had specifically envisaged this plan for the large space and acoustics of Gloucester Cathedral, and intended all three sub-ensembles to be seated apart from each other to create astonishing echo effects in the huge space. Despite the practical and aural difficulties of realising this plan, the layout of the ensemble contributes greatly towards producing the thrilling effect this masterpiece has when performed in this way. The composer is encouraged where possible to experiment with new seating layouts, or even asking the players to move around during the performance.

General considerations when scoring

The string section is highly versatile and is able to produce a wide range of dynamics, textures and effects in scores. They can execute both whispering pianissimos and rich fortes, present a warm melody or provide a subtle accompaniment. Although the five sections sound roughly homogeneous, there are subtle differences in the tone and timbre of each instrument which can be exploited by the skillful composer to great effect.

Rests

Unlike the wind and brass sections, the strings do not require rests to draw breath, nor do they need to be allowed to rest periodically for longer lengths to preserve their lips or lungs. In addition, it is often noted that the ear does not tire of the string sound as quickly as it does of other instruments. This does not mean, however, that the whole section or even any one instrument need play the entire time. Strings will appreciate an occasional rest to catch their breath, and passages for wind or brass alone will provide aural contrast to the listener.

Dynamics

As stated, the dynamic compass of the string section is wide. One important consideration, however, is that the loudest dynamic possible from the full string section is only comparable to that from the eight players of the wind section, and is much lower than that possible with the full brass or percussion sections. Composers should therefore avoid pitting the strings against the rest of the orchestra at very loud dynamics; it is better for them to either play in unison or double a louder instrument to provide a colouristic subtlety. That said, if the whole orchestra is playing it is better to give a quiet instrument such as the contrabass something to do, even if it will not be heard, than leave them idle. In the first climax of Liszt's Les Preludes, when the full brass take up the melody, the lower strings double a counter-melody played by the trombones and tuba, whilst the upper strings play arpeggios on the chords. Liszt here uses an apparent weakness of the strings to an advantage; the violins' secondary material, although marked forte, is in no danger of intruding into the brass' melody. At the lower end of the dynamic spectrum, the strings can range from quiet to barely audible in both still and active material, provided it is in a suitable register. Interestingly, the larger the number of players, the quieter the section is able to play. The reason for this is that at very low dynamics, the tone quality of an individual instrument is poor. However, when playing in an orchestra this problem disappears due to the many individual instruments blending together. Debussy is reputed to have persuaded a concert manager to pay for an extra desk of violins for this reason in a performance of La Mer. Whatever the truth in this story, the 'safety in numbers' effect of a large section is what allows the strings to execute such amazingly quiet passages such as the first appearance of the allegro C-major theme in Beethoven's 'Leonore No.3' Overture. Beethoven makes clever use of the cellos' weakest register to achieve the effect, and there are several occasions in his orchestral output where the strings are called upon to play extremely quiet chords. Needless to say, the masterful scoring allows them to do this with ease. Composers should be aware of the relative strengths and weaknesses of different parts of the strings' compass in order to devise the most effective distribution of material for the dynamic required.

Mutes

Contrary to some texts, the mute does not necessarily make the instrument it is applied to any quieter, but rather changes the tone colour of it by eliminating the upper overtones. In fact, the strings can play almost as loud with the mutes on as without, and can still play very quietly without it. The change in colour is subtle but effective. It goes without saying that enough time should be provided for strings to place or remove their mutes, although this can be done quite quickly. Where no suitable opportunity for a rest presents itself, some composers divide the section so that half take their mutes whilst the other half play the first part of the passage, and vice versa. A simple but brilliant passage in Sibelius' Tapiola finds the violins playing a bare third, tremolo. Sibelius asks the players to remove their mutes one by one, so that the tone quality imperceptably becomes brighter. This is partly a practical device to prepare for the storm scene that follows it, but it is also a wonderfully atmospheric effect.

Chords

The string section is well suited to presenting chords and chorale-like melodies at all dynamic levels. When spacing chords, pay close attention to the overtone series above the bass of the chord (this applies whether the chord is 'tonal' or not) and the most suitable register of each instrument. The former will allow you to present the chord to best effect, the latter will allow the players to do so. Sibelius was a master of scoring string chords and his output is rich in examples. At the very opening of The Swan of Tuonela, a dark minor chord in the cellos and basses metamorphoses into a luminous sound in the highest register of the violins. The basic chord and dynamic remain the same, yet Sibelius divides the strings heavily and adds a voice at the top of the chord as one drops out at the bottom. The resulting change of timbre is an unforgettable effect. As a contrasting example, the movement 'At the Castle Gate' from his Pellias and Mellisande suite is a richly scored chorale-like melody, again with heavy division of the string section, but this time to create a deep and sonorous sound throughout the movement. Note that the heaviest sonorities are only used for the most heavily stressed chords; Sibelius lightens the octave doubling and general scoring for less important and moving notes in order to prevent the texture becoming muddy or monotonous.

Divisi

The string section can potentially be divided as extensively as there are players in the section (as occurs in Penderecki's Threnody) but it is more common to find each section divided into just two or three parts, if at all. The contrabasses are divided less frequently than the other string sections due to their more limited range and quieter volume. When dividing into two parts, the players will do this by splitting into the left and right player sharing a stand. Which plays which depends on the section and where that section is located in the string layout, but in all cases, the section leader's side ('outside') will play the top line and the co-leader's side ('inside') will play the bottom part. One exception to this is in certain works by Smetana, where two completely separate cello parts are supplied, and so the players will alternate by desk between Cello 1 and Cello 2. When dividing into three or more parts it is up to the members of the section to work out whether to divide individually, by 'inside and outside', or by desk, in order to ensure an equal number of players on each line within the section. Except in the Smetana case cited above, all the divisi lines are printed on the same part, using more than one stave if necessary. A solo (played by the section leader) or several solos within a section can also be accompanied by the rest of the section, so the possibilities of divisi are very wide.

Melody

All sections, except on occasions the contrabasses, are able to present all kinds of melodies either alone or doubling (provided, of course, that the melody is reasonably idiomatic). The reason why the contrabass should be used with caution is that its lack of agility, relative lack of carrying power and very low register would render many melodies simply ridiculous - although that is not to say that it has no melodic capability whatsoever, as the famous solo in Mahler's First Symphony aptly demonstrates. A study of the orchestral literature from Mozart onwards will provide valuable insight into how this instrument can be used melodically. The rest of the strings can apply their full palette of colours to melodic material depending on the wishes of the composer, including doubling options. Notable examples from the repertoire include the presentation of the melody in the finale of Brahms' First Symphony by the violins in their lowest register, by the celli in their middle register in the scherzo of Tchaikovsky's 'Pathetique' Symphony and the slow movement of Dvorak's Fifth, by the violas in the fourth movement of Bartok's Concerto for Orchestra, and by the entire string section in unison in the slow movement of Beethoven's Piano Concerto No.4.

Accompaniment

As the strings are possessed of an extremely quiet lower dynamic and almost anything above it, they are ideal for providing accompaniment to solo instruments, solo singers or other orchestral instruments. In many concerti one will find the strings all playing pizzicato to emphasise important beats whilst the soloist carries the melody. When the bow is used, the texture is contrasting and the dynamic level is still unobtrusive. Another important device is to stay out of the soloist's register, particularly for quieter string soloists like the 'cello. If the solo instrument is loud, or if the rest of the orchestra are being accompanied, then there is no reason why the dynamic level cannot be increased (within the bounds of good sense). In a passage in Nielson's Flute Concerto, a solo trombone and several winds present a legato melody whilst the strings are playing accompanying semiquavers at full volume, in unison. Although lively, the difference in timbre and texture mean all the elements in this passage are clearly perceptible. A similar idea in Sibelius' Seventh Symphony, also for solo trombone against rich strings, succeeds for much the same reasons.

Counterpoint

Examples of fugues and canons presented by the string section are numerous, and to some extent the scoring will write itself provided the counterpoint itself is solid, save for the allocation of each instrument to a voice in the fugue. Bach, Haydn and Mozart usually allocated the four sections (basses doubling cellos an octave down) simply doubling the four voices of the choir, whether in counterpoint or homophony. Of course, counterpoint written specifically with strings in mind will be the most effective. As usual the lines should occupy different registers for maximum clarity and that lesser material should be lighter and at a lower dynamic level. If writing for full orchestra, the doubling of each string section with a particular wind or brass instrument is a good way to ensure clarity and suggest a distinctive character for each voice in the texture. A typically brilliant example of a fugue for strings (with a solo horn and tenor voice) comes in the fifth movement of Britten's Serenade, entitled 'Dirge'. Whilst the tenor sings medieval verses about judgement after death to a haunting melody, the strings and horn present a suitably nightmarish fugue, beginning with the contrabasses and building up to the forceful entry of the horn, before gradually subsiding again to leave just the basses. The contrabass, being the quietest member of the section, is allowed to present the (highly rhythmic) subject where it can be best heard, with only the voice against it.

For less fully-developed uses of counterpoint, the various string sections can be deployed either set against each other or as a mass set against other sections of the orchestra. In the development section in the first movement of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, strings (all in a low register) engage in antiphonal phrase-swapping with the winds and brass (in a higher register), providing in one gesture a timbral, registral and dynamic contrast.

Things to avoid

Overly pianistic writing Fast passages that are easy to play on a keyboard instrument often do not translate well to strings. In this respect, it is very interesting to study the first five symphonies by Shostakovich. The string parts of the First are, for the most part, not very idiomatic and often quite difficult. By the time we reach the Fourth and Fifth symphonies, they are more extensive and utilise more difficult techniques, yet are actually easier to play due to their suitability for the instruments. The reason for this is quite simple; whilst the First Symphony is a brilliant work, at this time Shostakovich was primarily a pianist and had mostly composed for this instrument. As he matured, he was able to expand his knowledge of what was effective for strings. Generally speaking, strings will cope most easily with scalic or arpeggiaic material in fast passages. Avoid successive wide leaps and use even consecutive leaps of less than a sixth with caution. In addition, the higher in the instrument's compass, the less the options for fingerings the player has. The previously cited Fourth Symphony of Shostakovich contains a phenomenally fast fugue for the entire string section in the first movement, yet it is wisely placed in each instrument's middle register and is composed from scalic material. Whilst difficult, is is certainly not as impossible as if it had been written an octave higher.

Long periods of held notes Whilst a static chord played by the entire section can support a variety of different colourations, and successive chords can be used to effectively accompany a melody, strings dislike long periods or indeed entire pieces of playing a single held note per bar. In addition to being monotonous to play, it suggests a lack of imagination to the listener. If you must write such passages because the rest of the material is unsuitable for strings, the addition of passing notes, counter-melodic fragments, suspensions or other small additions will greatly increase the interest of the music. Adding a rhythm to a sustained pitch can also be an effective method of generating interest, provided it is used imaginatively.

Long periods of tremolo or trill Again, whilst these effects are a useful resource, it is taxing to maintain the bow moving rapidly back and forth, or the rapid movement of fingers, for long periods. If you must write sustained trills, it is much more comfortable for them to be on consecutive notes so that they can be played with the first and second fingers.

Unsuitable rhythms Many more complex rhythms typically found in pop and jazz are less effectively executed on string instruments than wind, brass and voices, due to the lesser agility caused by having to draw a bow back and forth. It is difficult to provide an exact description of what is likely to work, as professional players will attempt almost anything even if it is not always very effective. The famous 'Mambo' section of Bernstein's Symphonic Dances from West Side Story contains rhythms for all the strings that are difficult in many technical respects, and Bernstein wisely doubles most of this material with a wind or brass instrument. It is important to point out that doubling an instrument not only offers greater colour possibilities but will most likely increase the confidence of all players in difficult passages. If you are arranging pop or jazz music and wish to present a vocal melody on strings, we advise you to double it subtly with winds or brass, place it in a clear register for the string instrument concerned, and make sure the accompaniment is unobtrusive. Pizzicato, although quieter in dynamic, can sometimes offer greater agility, especially if there would otherwise be a lot of string-crossing.

Unsuitable pizzicati Pizzicato which is placed very high on a string is difficult to execute well, as the string is already so taut from the high finger position that there is little elasticity with which to pluck the string, leading to a very quick decay and little carrying power. Of course, you may desire this effect, and it is found in twentieth-century scores. Another consideration is the speed at which a string player can physically pluck the string repeatedly, which is about equivalent to the speed at which a pianist can play a repeated note with the same finger. A notorious passage for the celli in Tchaikovsky's Capriccio Italien is an example of 'unplayable' pizzicati; the semiquavers are simply too fast to play at the prescribed tempi. In this case there is enough other noise going on for the cello section to hit the top and bottom notes and safely mime most of the other pitches.

Difficult leaps Wide upward leaps are one of the few things strings find difficult. It is difficult to advise non-string players on what is practical, but as a general rule, it will be much easier to find a high note if the player is starting from a lower position on the same string. If in doubt, consult a string player. The tempo of a passage plays a significant role too. Of course, choral voice-leading which follows good practice will always be successful in instrumental writing, but you should not be restricted to writing vocal music.

Further listening and study

Ades: Asyla; Tevot
JS Bach: Brandenberg Concerti Nos. 3 and 6
Bartok: Music for Strings, Percussion and Celeste; Concerto for Orchestra
Beethoven: Overture 'Leonore No.3'; Symphony No.7
Brahms: Symphony No.3
Britten: Simple Symphony; Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings; The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra
Debussy: La Mer; 'Iberia' (particularly for examples of divided strings)
Elgar: Introduction and Allegro for strings; In the South
Grieg: Holberg Suite
Hermann: Psycho (film score)
Holst: St Paul's Suite
Lutoslawski: Concerto for Orchestra; Funeral Music
Martinu: Symphony No.4
Mozart: The Marriage of Figaro overture; The Magic Flute overture, Symphony No. 41 'Jupiter'
Mendelssohn: Octet (and 12 string symphonies)
Part: Cantus in Memory of Benjamin Britten
Penderecki: Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima
Richard Strauss: Metamorphosen; Ein Alpensinfonie
Saint-Saens: Symphony No.3 'Organ' (particularly the slow movement); Cello Concerto No.1
Shostakovich: Symphony No.4; Piano Concerto No.2
Smetana: Overture 'The Bartered Bride'
Tchaikovsky: Serenade for Strings; Souvenir de Florence (string sextet), Symphony No.6 'Pathetique'
Vaughan Williams: Fantasia on a Theme of Thomas Tallis; Five Variants of Dives and Lazurus (strings and harp); Symphony no. 5
Wagner: Prelude to Lohengrin
Xenakis: Metastasis